Chapter 14: Generalizations

Generalizing is when we make a claim about a group or population to generalize an argument. The chapter is about how to correctly use generalizations and how to identify when they are used incorrectly.

On page 289 there is a box titled “Premises need for a good generalization”:

• The sample is representative
• The sample is big enough
• The sample is studied well

Basically, for a generalization to be good, the sample has to represent a good amount of the population being generalized about with enough data to support the generalization.

There should also be a small margin of error for the population sample (about +/-2%) and a larger confidence level for the population sample (about +/-95%). Both give strength to the generalization given and have more reason for it to be accepted.

Variation is also important in a population. If the number of people who own motorcycles is being tested for the state of California, the sample should be testing a more or less equal amount of men and women.

My favorite thing

My favorite thing about this class was the group assignments. The group assignments related well to the readings and lectures. We could use what we discussed in our blogs and apply them to what we were writing about. It also helped identified the most common arguments used in the real world: fallacies. I did not realize how much we were learning in class could be applied to organizations and group communication. The things we learned in class could also be applied to what we discussed in groups. For the second assignment especially, our group had a disagreement over which organization to focus on and we argued about it back and forth until coming to a decision. I also got to know my group members better. Because this class was online they were the few people in class I could connect a face to a blog to. We were able to discuss the class and assist each other. Communication is the focus of this class and that is exactly what we did in our groups.

This Semester I Learned!

There are many things I have learned in the last few months. This class is titled Critical Decision Making and I think I have learned the basics of how to make any decision.

First and foremost, I learned the many types of arguments on can make. Whether it is arguing to get a certain brand or if it were more serious in regards to business decisions. I now know how to effectively listen and decide.

Second, I have learned how to counter-argue. Because I have learned the types of arguments and parts of arguments one can use to argue I can effectively counter-argue if I chose to do. If I am agreeing or disagreeing with an argument I am able to look at both sides of the argument better now I believe.

Third, I have learned how to work in groups. The three projects/essays assigned were completed in groups. In our group we were able to designate jobs and break down the assignment. By breaking down the assignment we could figure out when to do what and create deadlines and meeting times to complete the assignment. I think that is why our group did so well together we knew when to help each other out.

Cause

Chapter fifteen discusses What is the Cause? This section was about looking at the root causes an argument could have it was divided into sections to clarify each part of a cause. First, causes and effects discussed the statement “Spot caused me to wake up”. The relationship between Spot and Dick is what the cause was. The second part was about the normal condition which is the unstated claims that are obvious and plausible. The third part is about particular causes, generalization, and general causes. Particular causes happen in correlation: every time this happens that happens. There was also the section about the cause that precedes the effect. This part pointed out the preceded part of the cause that Spot barked and then Dick woke up. The cause makes a difference was the fifth section. This discussed how sometimes the correlations is not enough there needs to be an “if” involved. The sixth section is overlooking a common cause. The seventh was about tracing the cause backwards which was looking at what caused the dog to bark. The eighth section gave criteria for cause and effect which summarized what is necessary for cause and effect. The ninth section was about what mistakes could be made when evaluating cause and effect: reversing cause and effect or looking to hard for a cause.

Critical Website

The Mission Critical web site was a very good review for what arguments are. Defining in detail what claims are, allowed me to review the different types of statements: universal, qualified, specific, non-specific, comparative, fact and opinion, verifiable, evaluative, and advocatory. There were also exercises that asked students to identify what type of claims they are.

The web site also discussed how “and” or “or” are used. “And” (and “but”) words affirm all and negate one. “Or” is used to affirm one and negate all. The examples in this section wer clear about what you would need for effective arguments using the words “and” or “or”.

In the section about Inductive and Deductive Reasoning, I learned that arguments used inductively are usually based on experience and observation. While argument that are deductive are made based on laws, rules, or widely accepted principles. The web site emphasized that “any inductive argument can also be expressed deductively, and any deductive argument can also be expressed inductively.” By knowing whether or not an argument is inductive or deductive is important because it will help one make valid and sound arguments

Cause and Effect Website

The website provided by our professor gave an introduction to Casual Arguments. At first I was confused as why the site was titled so because our professor called it the Cause and Effect Website. But upon further reading of the web site, I under stood that the site explained what casual arguments were. Basically casual arguments are made when something occurs because of something else: a cause and a effect.

Casual arguments are similar to inductive arguments. Both use cause and effect. The premise and the claim have no significant difference. However, casual arguments have a significant difference for each party involved.

The web site provided three key factors of a casual argument:
1. how acceptable or demonstrable the implied comparison is
2. how likely the case of causation seems to be
3. how credible the “significant difference” or “only significant commonality” claim is

The web site and its excercises proved to help me understand casual argument/cause and effect better and make it easier to identify and use.

Reasoning by Analogy in the Law

In our Epstein Critical Thinking text books, Chapter Twelve discusses how Reasoning by Analogy is used in the law. The section in the chapter explained that in law these type of arguments are the most used because lawyers can provide details, that are carefully analyzed arguments. Because laws are vague and not specific it is difficult for judges at all levels: Supreme Court, federal courts, state courts, county courts, and local courts.

The most common Reasoning by Analogy used in the law is reasoning by example. Because it is used based on a case for case basis. The excerpt from Edward H. Levi’s An Introduction to Legal Reasoning discusses how any case sets a precedent for other cases. By setting a precedent with any law the law becomes more specific based on the ruling of the judge.

Of course there are always cases that are later over ruled. The most important case in which this occured was Brown v. The Board of Education. The case allowed the “equal but separate” precedent for many cases until nearly a hundred years later when the case was considered wrong.