Cause

Chapter fifteen discusses What is the Cause? This section was about looking at the root causes an argument could have it was divided into sections to clarify each part of a cause. First, causes and effects discussed the statement “Spot caused me to wake up”. The relationship between Spot and Dick is what the cause was. The second part was about the normal condition which is the unstated claims that are obvious and plausible. The third part is about particular causes, generalization, and general causes. Particular causes happen in correlation: every time this happens that happens. There was also the section about the cause that precedes the effect. This part pointed out the preceded part of the cause that Spot barked and then Dick woke up. The cause makes a difference was the fifth section. This discussed how sometimes the correlations is not enough there needs to be an “if” involved. The sixth section is overlooking a common cause. The seventh was about tracing the cause backwards which was looking at what caused the dog to bark. The eighth section gave criteria for cause and effect which summarized what is necessary for cause and effect. The ninth section was about what mistakes could be made when evaluating cause and effect: reversing cause and effect or looking to hard for a cause.

Critical Website

The Mission Critical web site was a very good review for what arguments are. Defining in detail what claims are, allowed me to review the different types of statements: universal, qualified, specific, non-specific, comparative, fact and opinion, verifiable, evaluative, and advocatory. There were also exercises that asked students to identify what type of claims they are.

The web site also discussed how “and” or “or” are used. “And” (and “but”) words affirm all and negate one. “Or” is used to affirm one and negate all. The examples in this section wer clear about what you would need for effective arguments using the words “and” or “or”.

In the section about Inductive and Deductive Reasoning, I learned that arguments used inductively are usually based on experience and observation. While argument that are deductive are made based on laws, rules, or widely accepted principles. The web site emphasized that “any inductive argument can also be expressed deductively, and any deductive argument can also be expressed inductively.” By knowing whether or not an argument is inductive or deductive is important because it will help one make valid and sound arguments

Cause and Effect Website

The website provided by our professor gave an introduction to Casual Arguments. At first I was confused as why the site was titled so because our professor called it the Cause and Effect Website. But upon further reading of the web site, I under stood that the site explained what casual arguments were. Basically casual arguments are made when something occurs because of something else: a cause and a effect.

Casual arguments are similar to inductive arguments. Both use cause and effect. The premise and the claim have no significant difference. However, casual arguments have a significant difference for each party involved.

The web site provided three key factors of a casual argument:
1. how acceptable or demonstrable the implied comparison is
2. how likely the case of causation seems to be
3. how credible the “significant difference” or “only significant commonality” claim is

The web site and its excercises proved to help me understand casual argument/cause and effect better and make it easier to identify and use.

Reasoning by Analogy in the Law

In our Epstein Critical Thinking text books, Chapter Twelve discusses how Reasoning by Analogy is used in the law. The section in the chapter explained that in law these type of arguments are the most used because lawyers can provide details, that are carefully analyzed arguments. Because laws are vague and not specific it is difficult for judges at all levels: Supreme Court, federal courts, state courts, county courts, and local courts.

The most common Reasoning by Analogy used in the law is reasoning by example. Because it is used based on a case for case basis. The excerpt from Edward H. Levi’s An Introduction to Legal Reasoning discusses how any case sets a precedent for other cases. By setting a precedent with any law the law becomes more specific based on the ruling of the judge.

Of course there are always cases that are later over ruled. The most important case in which this occured was Brown v. The Board of Education. The case allowed the “equal but separate” precedent for many cases until nearly a hundred years later when the case was considered wrong.

Argument By Analogy

Argument by Analogy is one of the types of reasoning that we studied that I had a difficult and challenging time learning. I think I was over thinking what it could mean so I was missing the simple meaning of argument by analogy.

If one were to argue by analogy one would claim that certain things share similar characteristics in common.

The following web site:
http://info-pollution.com/analogy.htm
gives a number of examples and key parts of a argument by analogy.

It gave a number of points that helped one determine if the argument was valid, strong, and relevant. The site was meant to counter argue against the statement:

“Pork, the other white meat.”

The web site points out what is weak within the argument and what is strong. It gives other analogies we can look at and think weather or not the number and quality of similarities is good.

Reasoning Examples

One. Argument by Analogy
Premise #1: My friends all dance.
Premise#2: My sisters all dance.
Conclusion: Everyone I know are dancers.

Two. Argument by Sign
Parent: You have to be home tomorrow to clean the house.
Child: I can’t tomorrow I have work all day.
Parent: All right, just make sure it’s clean by Saturday.
Child: Okay, I have time to clean Friday.

Three. Casual Reasoning
Premise #1: I woke up late for school.
Premise#2: I did not have time to eat breakfast this morning.
Conclusion: I was hungry all morning after arriving late to school.

Four. Reasoning by Criteria
Your mom would like something meaningful and thoughtful. Why not get her an engraved locket?

Five. Reasoning by Example
Kayla can play several pieces on the piano. If you want to be play as well as Kayla, you should practice more.

Six. Inductive
Premise #1: Every Thursday, my family eats dinner together.
Premise#2: Today is Friday.
Conclusion: We are not having family dinner tonight.

Seven. Deductive
Premise #1: There are many attractions at the San Diego Zoo.
Premise#2: There are pandas at the San Diego Zoo.
Conclusion: The pandas are one of many attractions at the San Diego Zoo.

Apple Polishing and Appeal to Vanity

In the exercise section of chapter 10, number two asks us to find an ad that uses apple polishing. I could not think of an example of apple polishing because I still do not understand what apple polishing is. I reread the couple sentences about it in the chapter and was hoping for more examples of it.

When I googled “apple polishing”, this website: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-does-apple-polishing-mean.htm
provided some very useful information and more examples. I did not realize apple polishing was equivalent to sucking up or brown nosing. It is an appeal to vanity, complementing viewers of ads to get them to feel a certain way if they buy this dress or those shoes.

The following ad is meant to appeal to a girl’s inner princess. http://talkingcosmetics.com/pics/vera/vsample2.jpg
By appealing a girl’s child dream of marrying a prince and becoming a princess. This could be one of the many examples of appealing to vanity by apple polishing.

Appeal to Fear Excercise

For exercise number three we were told to find an advertisement that appealed to a person’s emotion of fear. The following link is to an ad I found online that did invoke fear in me when I saw it.

https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2WDIvk3tDjabAJcSCU74FXaJcr8-BQ4qXBWzG1SMCTC0LkNTcJfYyRHiLRoPgfCJu-vY3P0RIaL3ErqDNciVPOoTXtswVm5bAFJYU60vVc_X4uk4rSr-36KemAVDdHXZtMLHE_lkRRfo/s1600/Fear+ad+a+real+one.jpg

The ad appeals to one’s fear of death. By doing so, it makes you want to read the fine print the ad places on the left side of the ad. Probably found in magazines regarding one’s health or fitness, these ads would get a lot of attention. The photo of the ad also emphasizes the fear of death. It becomes a good argument for those looking at the end because its effective in sending the message.

Many ads appeal to the emotions of shoppers because emotions drive decisions we make. For example if you saw a PETA ad of animals being abused, you might want to donate to PETA to protect some animals.

Appeal to Emotion

Emotions play a large role when reasoning. Whether we are arguing for or against something our emotions drive our arguments. By appealing to emotion it allows an argument to be good. It is possible to appeal to a person’s fear, consequences, flattery, pity, vanity, ridicule, spite, or ignorance. There are many emotions one can appeal to.

An example of appealing to consequences would be like the following:
If Laura practices the piano everyday, Laura will become a great pianist. Laura wants to be a great pianist, so she practices everyday.

This argument appeals to Laura’s consequence of practicing the piano every day. It could also be used in the opposite way like the following example:

If Laura drives to work everyday, her car wastes a lot of gas. Laura wants to save gas. Therefore, she uses the bus to work almost everyday.

These type of arguments are all pathos arguments because they appeal to the emotions. This is